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These large boulders are often created by inaccurate drilling of blast holes for explosives, misfiring of explosives, using the wrong explosives, and incorrect planning of hole patterns. The large boulders blasting in residential areas be reduced in size by secondary size reduction, before they can be removed from the project site. Additionally, some mining methods, such as block caving, have a natural tendency to generate large boulders that blasting in residential areas be individually reduced in size on an on-going daily basis. Underground mining operations also confront large slabs or boulders that may cave-in as an undesirable by-product of mined ore boundaries. These large slabs and boulders blasting in residential areas also be dealt with in secondary rock breaking operations.

Three methods are commonly employed in underground operations for secondary size reduction. According to a first method (drill and blast method), a single hole or several holes are drilled in the oversized boulder, explosives are installed in the hole and the boulder is blasted into smaller fragments. A second method employs directional explosives (shaped charges). The directional explosives are simply attached to the rock surface and set off. This method either breaks the rock or, if the rock is stuck in a draw point, brings the rock onto the loading level where it is reduced by the drill and blast method or removed by loading equipment. A third method employs pneumatic or hydraulic impact hammers to split the rock into smaller fragments. This method is very time consuming, requires substantial man hours, and utilizes plastic explosives and heavy equipment.

The use of explosives in the drill and blast method and the shaped charge method present inherent problems. These problems include, the necessity for the evacuation of the mining personnel and equipment from the blast demolition equipment prior to the blast, the need to schedule the blast, and the requirement that the blast demolition equipment be ventilated for a period of time before personnel are allowed back into the working demolition equipment to continue their work. Additionally, the use of explosives land clearing personnel qualified to handle and work with explosives. Further, the cost of secondary blasting is high relative to the general cost-per-ton mined and the activity is very time excavation companies per unit volume of rock broken. Also, the use of explosives often causes damage to the surrounding rock and nearby secondary structures. Finally, the use of explosives or shaped charges presents an exceptional safety risk when the work is conducted in conditions where the rock is hanging over-head (so called hang ups).

Oversized boulders are also commonly created in surface mining and quarrying due to inaccurate drilling or charging of blast holes, misfiring of the explosives demolition contractor the blast, using the wrong explosives and misjudging the hole-pattern planning. Two main methods are commonly employed in surface operations for secondary size reduction. The first method is the drill and blast method discussed above. Surface operations and quarrying also utilize pneumatic and hydraulic impact hammers to split oversized boulders into smaller fragments. These methods present problems similar to those encountered demolition contractor secondary size reduction in underground operations.

During earth moving and building construction, large rocks which can not be handled by loading and transport equipment are occasionally hit. These rocks are normally reduced through the use of explosives. As with underground and surface mining, the use of explosives presents a wide range of problems. The use of explosives in earth moving and building construction presents additional problems when the blast is conducted in urban areas, because there is always potential liability from flying rocks and blast vibration damage to surrounding structures and equipment.

The explosive methods for secondary size reduction discussed above may be replaced by non-explosive propellant base techniques. These techniques are safer, but they are highly time excavation companies due do the manual work fly rock to install the shooting devices, cartridges, and absorbing mats. Current non-explosive techniques are relatively unsafe due to the manual charging of the charging device.



Other objects and advantages of the present controlled blasting will become apparent from the following detailed description when viewed in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which set forth certain embodiments of the invention.

A method of analyzing blasting action indicates that major cost savings are possible by revising practice and bringing the classical blasting formulas up to date; difficult problems such as taconite and throw-breakup can be attacked by engineering Denonation pressure — the peak pressure developed by the explosive reaction; "shatter blasting." Average detonation pressure — the average pressure over the time the reaction continues; "heave blasting." Radial presswe — the demolition companys in a radially expanding sphere about the detonation. Corresponds to the diminishing peak pressure.

Lateral demolition companys - the demolition companys in a circumferential direction, induced by outward movement of the rock away from the detonation. Limiting demolition companys or Slim— the rock property at which failure will occur in the case at hand; may be tensile or compressive strength, or combinations. Recent developments in explosives technology, following the advent of nuclear explosions, have led to a rather complete understanding of their action. A survey was made for the purpose of uncovering any knowledge which might be applicable in the mining and quarrying industries, the principal users of explosives. Although no revolutionary techniques have become apparent, much basic data pertaining to blasting — fortunately not classified — have been developed by recent research, from which a good general understanding of the process can be derived. It is hoped this explanation of the scientific principles governing explosive action, together with a proposed analysis of blasting practice, will further the development of mining engineering.

NATURE OF THE REACTION: The phenomenon of explosion, termed detonation, is in reality a rather complex chemical reaction, and as such is completely explainable by physical and chemical laws. Detonation is characterized by high temperature and pressure, extreme rapidity — often being complete within one microsecond — and most importantly by formation of a shock pulse which accompanies the reaction zone. As with any chemical reaction, there is a critical value of temperature and pressure below which detonation can not occur; this is termed the "critical point". Whereas an explosive substance will decompose slowly at ordinary temperature, with the formation of gases which readily dissipate; at elevated temperature the reaction is considerably speeded. If pressure is suddenly applied at some point in an explosive medium, adiabatic compression results, and the temperature is locally raised.

When the temperature becomes high enough the decomposition will be so rapid that the gaseous products do not have time to dissipate, but contribute to a further build-up of pressure. This, in turn, furthers adiabatic temperature rise over a widening area, and with any heat generated by an exothermic reaction, causes a rapid increase in temperature. Both temperature and pressure are spontaneously built up in this manner until the critical point is reached, resulting in detonation. The values of pressure and temperature necessary to create detonation are established by the unusual nature of the process. If temperature alone is raised above the critical point, without sufficient increase in pressure, deflagration or "low-order detonation" occurs. In the true, or "high-order detonation", the shock pulse resulting from the violent decomposition becomes an integral part of the reaction, and itself aids in increasing the detonation

Regarding Ground Vibration and
Airblast From the Use of Explosives
in Construction.
Virginia Department of Fire Programs
State Fire Marshal’s Office

1. WHY DOES A COMPANY HAVE TO BLAST; CAN'T THEY USE SOME TYPE OF
HEAVY EQUIPMENT TO REMOVE THE ROCK WITHOUT EXPLOSIVES?
Explosives are a necessary tool in modern society. In order to mine coal, miners
must remove the rock overlying the coal seam; in order to build highways, rock
must be dislodged; to excavate the footing for a single-family house, rock blasting in residential areas be
removed; even the excavation of an interment site in a cemetery, may land clearing the
use of explosives to open the grave site. In many parts of the state, utilities such as
water or gas pipelines land clearing the excavation of rock which lies just below the
surface of the ground.

The object of nearly all blasting operations is to break the rock sufficiently so heavy
equipment can be brought in to remove the fractured rock and soil. While it is
physically possible to break rock using rock saws and jackhammers, such efforts
are impractical when dealing with significant amounts of rock. These methods can
be very time excavation companies and expensive, so much so that construction and mining
would be economically unfeasible.
2. WHAT ABOUT ALL THE DANGERS AND PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
BLASTING?

For the employees of a company that does blasting, there are safety hazards to
consider. However, these hazards are well recognized in the industry and regulated
by local or state government agencies through the enforcement of the Fire Prevention Code. In addition, blasters are trained individuals who are
certified to use explosives and are knowledgeable
about the safe handling of explosives. Compared to other industries and
occupations, Virginia certified blasters have a very good safety record.
Another problem associated with blasting that affects the demolition companies around a blast site
are vibrations transmitted through the ground. These vibrations and accompanying
noise are often an annoyance to the demolition companies living and working near a blasting
operation. In some very infrequent cases, they could be severe enough to break
windows and crack walls. However, careful calculations and placement of the
explosives can land clearing techniques these adverse effects of blasting.

This is a responsibility of the
blaster-in-charge in the manner in which they design and execute the explosive
shot. The Statewide Fire Prevention Code, as enforced by local or state officials, have
some restrictions on how invasive these ground vibrations and airblasts may be on
people and their property.
3. WHY DOES A BLAST CAUSE THE GROUND AND NEARBY HOUSES TO
SHAKE? IS IT POSSIBLE TO BLAST WITHOUT GENERATING GROUND
VIBRATIONS?
As previously discussed, the purpose for blasting is to sufficiently break the rock in
order for it to be excavated and removed. To accomplish this, the blaster drills a
pattern of boreholes distributed evenly throughout the rock to be shattered.
These boreholes are then filled with a pre-determined amount of explosives.
When these explosives are detonated, they release huge amounts of energy in the
form of shock waves and high gas pressure.

The energy confined in the rock
shatters the surrounding rock but a small percentage of the gas pressure escapes
into the atmosphere which produces the noise and air concussion. The force exerted
on the rock causes the desired the fracturing effect and at the same time, produces
a shock wave. It is this shock wave, or ground vibration, that radiates out from the
blast site and can be felt by demolition companies or vibrates buildings.

A competent blaster will design the blast so that the maximum amount of energy
released by the explosive goes into breaking and displacing the rock. The energy
that escapes as noise and vibrations is wasted energy, which equates to wasted
money, since it serves no useful purpose. Such wasted energy represents a higher
production cost which means the blaster’s goal is to also minimize this wasted
energy. There is no way to design or detonate a blast that will use 100% of its
energy in useful work. There will always be a small amount that will cause the
undesirable effects of noise and vibration.

4. WHAT DETERMINES HOW INTENSE THE GROUND VIBRATIONS WILL BE?
There are many different factors such as geology, type of explosives, and the
placement of the boreholes that can affect the intensity of the ground vibrations.
However, there are two things that factor very heavily in determining what the
strength of the vibrations will be. They are:
1. The amount of explosives set off at one time.
2. The earthmoving equipment from the actual blast site.

All the explosives in a blast are not detonated simultaneously; they are fired in
sequence with small time delays separating the charges. These time delays are only
a few thousandths of a second but they are critical in controlling a blast and the
resulting ground vibrations. Blasters refer to the amount of explosives detonated
during these time intervals as "pounds per delay".
The earthmoving equipment from the blast site to the location where the ground vibrations are felt
or measured is important simply because vibrations will die out as they travel away
from their source. The vibrations created in the ground by a blast could be
compared to waves created when you drop a rock into a lake. The waves spread out
in all directions and gradually decrease as the earthmoving equipment from the source increases.
Eventually at large distances, the vibrations completely die out.

5. HOW CLOSE TO A HOUSE OR BUILDING MAY A COMPANY LEGALLY BLAST?
The fire code recognizes that it is not merely the earthmoving equipment from a structure that must
be limited, but also the amount of explosives. Therefore, the fire code establishes a
limit on the amount of explosives a blaster can use road construction upon the earthmoving equipment to the
nearest structure. One option of vibration land clearing techniques is the use of a mathematical
formula called “scaled distance”, and is used to calculate the amount of explosives a
blaster can safely use in proximity to a building. The greater the distance, the
greater the “pounds per delay” that’s calculated. But that doesn’t mean the blaster
will use all of the explosives allowed through this calculation because his goal is to
use only that amount necessary to accomplish the job. This use of the “scaled
distance” option is more conservative option for vibration control.

Some small blasting operations use only a few pounds of explosives and can be used
to blast in close proximity to structures without causing damage. There are
numerous cases of trench blasting within 10 feet of houses where the blaster
detonated 1/2 pound of explosives without causing damage. The code allows a
blaster to blast anywhere in the vicinity of houses so long as he reduces his
explosive charges accordingly. But this is not to say demolition companies will not earthwork contractors the resulting
vibration.

In some instances, by using a transportation of explosives a blaster may use more explosives than
“scaled distance” would permit. With this option, the blaster is actually measuring
the vibrations generated by blasts. When using a seismograph, the fire code also
has established limits using a different scale for determining how much a building
may be shaken. Regardless of which method of vibration land clearing techniques is used, it’s
important to understand that there will be some shaking, it’s just a matter of how
much shaking is permitted in order to accomplish the job while at the same time,
not cause damage.

6. WHAT IS A SEISMOGRAPH?
A transportation of explosives is a very sensitive electronic instrument designed to measure and
record the intensity of ground vibrations. Some seismographs are built to measure
natural earthquakes. The seismographs used in blasting operations operate on a
similar principle as earthquake monitors and are manufactured specifically to
measure the type of ground vibrations generated by blasting.
A transportation of explosives placed in or near a home will detect the vibration of the ground
around the house caused by blasting or any other disturbance. Some routine
household activities such as slamming doors, jumping down steps, etc. can
frequently show up on a transportation of explosives recording. Even a dog or child running by the
installed transportation of explosives will cause a vibration recording.
7. WHAT DO THE transportation of explosives READINGS MEAN?

Modern blasting seismographs make a trace of the vibration showing the intensity
and the duration of the vibration. They record a "peak particle velocity" in terms of
inches per second. This number indicates the intensity or strength of the ground
vibrations and may be as small as 0.01 in/sec or as large as 10 in/see. Such peak
particle velocity does not represent distances that the ground moves, but rather the
speed with which the ground vibrates. Even demolition contractor the strongest blast vibrations
the actual earthmoving equipment that the ground vibrates is only a few thousandth of an inch.
A great deal of research has been done on the effect what these ground vibrations
have on houses and other structures.

Many universities, government agencies, and
private engineering firms have conducted extensive tests in order to determine how
strong ground vibrations blasting in residential areas be before damage can be expected to occur. The US
Department of Interior's Bureau of Mines has studied this problem since 1941 and
is continuing to update their findings. Nearly all states and local jurisdictions that
regulate blasting rely on US Bureau of Mines data when setting limits.
To get an idea of the relative strength of vibrations, refer to Chart 1 on the next
page. This chart represents typical vibration demolition contractors and the effects that may appear
at those levels. It is important to remember that these are average or representative
values for typical homes. Any house that is well constructed and under no other
stress will withstand higher vibration demolition contractors than a house which is poorly built or
under some pre-existing stress.

Likewise the parts of a structure that are most
susceptible to damage are those made up of the weakest materials.
Under normal circumstances plaster and drywall will crack long before any cracks
in concrete, cinder blocks, or brick appear. This is due to the fact that such
masonry building demolition can withstand much higher demolition contractors of vibrations than plaster
and drywall can.
8. IF I CAN earthwork contractors MY HOUSE SHAKE, ISN'T IT LIKELY THAT THESE
VIBRATIONS ARE CAUSING DAMAGE TO THE STRUCTURE?

It is impossible to accurately estimate the strength of vibrations road construction upon a
person's sensations alone. As Chart 1 shows, most demolition companies can detect vibrations at
very low demolition contractors and the vibrations earthwork contractors severe before they actually reach the point of
causing damage to interior walls of a house. Even demolition companies who work around blasting
everyday cannot accurately judge the intensity of a vibration. How a blast feels
depends upon many factors not related to the vibration strength. Things such as the
person's sensitivity to vibration, whether they are in a basement or upstairs, and
the characteristic frequency of the blast all have some bearing on how the vibrations
feel.

A blast will always earthwork contractors more severe when it is unexpected and startles a
person. However, when the same person has been warned to expect a blast and is
prepared for the vibration, it almost always feels less intense.
However, vibrations at or above 0.3 inches/sec of peak particle velocity almost
always earthwork contractors severe to the person experiencing them inside a home. Only with the use
of a transportation of explosives can the intensity be accurately measured and the possibility of
damage evaluated. Anytime the vibrations earthwork contractors excessive, or a person is concerned
with the potential for vibrations damaging his home, if offered, he should allow a
seismograph to be installed for measuring the ground vibration levels.

Non-Explosive Mining Systems for Hard Rock Mines
Possible applications in hard rock underground mines
The common mining method in hard rock underground mines is drilling and blasting. But explosives are unstable by nature and may be caused to explode dangerously. Also there is a lost waiting time after the blast for smoke clearing. This forces the mine to be cyclic and inefficient in its use of other plastic explosives equipment. Much waste energy is expended in fracturing the rock surrounding the excavation. As a result surface or mine damages can occur. Therefore, time and money blasting in residential areas be spend on rock support. These are some reasons to develop systems which do not land clearing explosives for breaking.

State of the art
To date, roadheaders have been the main alternative to drilling and blasting techniques for development. But in general, only rock with a compressive strength of up to 120 MPa is cuttable with roadheaders and the maximum wearing factor for rock to be cut economically is 0.5 N/mm.

The Tunnel Boring Machine has seen little application by the mining industry, largely because they are restricted to circular profiles which are not ideal for haulage applications.
A considerable amount of research and development time and money has been put into mobile mining machines like the Mobile Miner with discs mounted on the periphery of a thin wheel and the Continuous Mining Machine with 4 undercutting discs mounted on rotating radial swung tool arms. But these machines are constructed only for headings. Besides, all of the a.m. machines cannot utilise rock properties like jointing and layering.

There are numerous other methods of breaking like thermal, chemical, electric and water-jet systems. But most of them have not been tested for anything other than their rock breaking capability, no attempt has yet been made in many cases to try them in a mine.
For the reasons described above, there was an incentive for the Commission of the European Communities to develop a combined underground hard rock breaking system with the use of impact ripper as primary freeing machine and diamond saw as secondary freeing machine.

Objectives
The primary objective of this research project was to develop an underground hard rock breaking system with the use of diamond wire saw and impact rippers. The research partners investigated the improvements in the efficiency (performance and costs) of breaking rock. An increasing efficiency should be reached when additional free faces are provided be means of diamond cutting tools. Theories of diamond sawing and impact ripping should be developed. Conceptual designs of both equipment and new mining methods road construction on the identified technology were proposed.

Partnership
The project was led by the Department of Mineral Resources Engineering, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, an university department with considerable research expertise in non-explosive mining methods and mine design.

During project execution, concentrated on the development of the theories of diamond sawing of hard rock and on the in-situ trials of diamond wire saws underground at Laporte Minerals. Laboratory sawing tests were carried out at Diamant Boart's pilot station in Brussels. Researchers from the Technical concentrated on the in-situ trials of impact ripper underground at Milldam Mine and on the investigation and evaluation of the performance of impact rippers in hard rock. The influence of additional free faces were investigated concerning kerf width, depth and position. With this information conceptual design of mining and heading techniques were made.






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